d. both b and c. 2. However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. Incentral sleep apnea, disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing cause periods of interrupted breathing (White, 2005). Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. In Falaters case, a jury found him guilty of first degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however, there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been used successfully. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). In addition, these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia (Fiorentini et al., 2011). Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90 . Methadone clinicshelp people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. Like hypnosis, meditation also shows promise in stress management, sleep quality (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin, & Greeson, 2010), treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Chen et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2010; Vllestad, Nielsen, & Nielsen, 2012), and pain management (Reiner, Tibi, & Lipsitz, 2013). Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. They can be helpful for people working night shifts or for people affected by seasonal variations in light. In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). In contrast,non-REM (NREM)sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. Identifying Internal States of the Brain | Technology Networks During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Try going to bed and waking up at the same time every day to keep your biological clock in sync so your body gets in the habit of sleeping every night. The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). This is illustrated by McCartys (2010) case study of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours that she had experienced for several years. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. Reduced urine. Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. Perhaps our ancestors spent extended periods of time asleep to reduce attention to themselves from potential predators. c. deaths due to accidents have increased. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. This shift in policy may be in response to the scientific communitys recommendations and/or reflect changing public opinion regarding marijuana. Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. 2. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). These brain areas include the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. The term was first coined by a physiologist named Walter Cannon in 1926. These include daydreaming, intoxication, and unconsciousness due to anesthesia. (credit sleeping: modification of work by Ryan Vaarsi). In the variation of mindful meditation, the meditators attention is focused on some internal process or an external object (Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2012). Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter systemthe body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. In individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. Shock: Signs, Causes, and Types - Healthline This section will describe several sleep disorders as well as some of their treatment options. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. A) managed care States of Consciousness - Psychology 2e - Maricopa The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. The treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia (e.g., spending more waking time in bed). Getting the optimal amount of sleep has also been associated with other cognitive benefits. In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. . While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea (OSA), and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. As scary as it sounds, many sleep researchers believe that homicidal sleepwalking is possible in individuals suffering from the types of sleep disorders described below (Broughton et al., 1994; Cartwright, 2004; Mahowald, Schenck, & Cramer Bornemann, 2005; Pressman, 2007). One of the nurses said, If youve had a partner who does work regular job 9 to 5 office hours . While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. While medical marijuana laws have been passed on a state-by-state basis, federal laws still classify this as an illicit substance, making conducting research on the potentially beneficial medicinal uses of marijuana problematic. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine. Until recently, the United States Department of Justice routinely arrested people involved and seized marijuana used in medicinal settings. How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Individuals who suffer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Add a comment. That is why individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or work with dangerous machinery. Early attempts to treat her condition with a stimulant drug alone were unsuccessful. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. The crisis actually began in the 1990s, when pharmaceutical companies began mass-marketing pain-relieving opioid drugs like OxyContin with the promise (now known to be false) that they were non-addictive. This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. This is known as the REM rebound, and it suggests that REM sleep is also homeostatically regulated. Rotating shift workrefers to a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. c. Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. Complications. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, her infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms collectively called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). The FDAs 2013 recommendation for tighter controls on opiate prescriptions left many patients addicted to prescription drugs like OxyContin unable to obtain legitimate prescriptions. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. 23. . describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. While it is probably the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. In Hilgards experiments, he induced participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice water. As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. The Safe to Sleep campaign educates the public about how to minimize risk factors associated with SIDS. There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. . The fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fifth Edition(DSM-5) is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. Watch this, Sleep, which we all experience, is a quiet and mysterious pause in our daily lives. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. For instance, have you ever daydreamed while driving home from work or school without really thinking about the drive itself? For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time) (Roth, 2007). Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. PSY 352 Health Psy Quiz 1 - PSY-352 Health Psychology Quiz 1 - StuDocu Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). While the possession and use of marijuana remain illegal in many states, it is now legal to possess limited quantities of marijuana for recreational use in eleven states: Alaska, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. The brain waves associated with REM sleep, outlined in the red box in (a), look very similar to those seen (b) during wakefulness. Think meditation might help? For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. Heavy meals may make you sleepy, but they can also lead to frequent awakenings due to gastric distress. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. Its simply that they feel so overwhelmed and stressed that they cannot fall asleep or stay asleep. Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. This section will consider these questions and explore various explanations for why we sleep. For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. His children and his wifes parents all agreed that Falater had an excellent relationship with his wife and they couldnt think of a reason that would provide any sort of motive to murder her (Cartwright, 2004). 1. While cognitive deficits may be the most obvious, many body systems are negatively impacted by lack of sleep. that would be one of the problems that Ive encountered. This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. As one of their mechanisms of action, cocaine and amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse into the presynaptic cell. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. An important difference between mood disorders and normal mood fluctuation is: A) the particular medication used to treat the problem. Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. As we grow older, we sleep less. However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. Disorganized Thinking. Methamphetamine in its smokable form, often called crystal meth due to its resemblance to rock crystal formations, is highly addictive. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake. Treatment. Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). Test 3 (Chapter 8) Flashcards | Quizlet The consequences of sleep debt include decreased levels of alertness and mental efficiency. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. For example, repeated use can lead to overall depletion among the monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin). However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. It is not uncommon for people suffering from undiagnosed or untreated sleep apnea to fear that their careers will be affected by the lack of sleep, illustrated by this statement from another patient, Im in a job where theres a premium on being mentally alert. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. (West et al., 2009, p. 114). Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suffers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002). QUIZ 1 EXTRA STUDY .docx - QUIZ 1 STUDY GUIDE HELP PLUS Has something like this ever happened to you? Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . The lifespan perspective in health psychology reveals that adolescents One of the shortcomings with the health belief model is Risk factors for a health problem People whose personalities include high levels of _____ seem to be "disease" Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Abnormal Motor Behavior. Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative (Berry, Kryger, & Massie, 2011). Many of these processes, like much of psychological behavior, are rooted in our biology. Module 4: Mood Disorders - Washington State University It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information to the SCN based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal clock to be synchronized with the outside world (Klein, Moore, & Reppert, 1991; Welsh, Takahashi, & Kay, 2010) (Figure 4.3). Historically, heroin has been a major opioid drug of abuse (Figure 4.17). (credit: modification of work by new 1lluminati/Flickr), Medical marijuana shops are becoming more and more common in the United States. People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of available research suggests that most people are at least moderately hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep. Methamphetamineis a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies).
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